Irish Rebellion of 1798: Effect on Irish Immigration

The Irish
Rebellion of 1798: How Did the Rebellion Effect Irish Immigration?
The Irish Rebellion of 1798 began as an uprising initiated by the Society of United Irishmen, ultimately leading to Great Britain tightening its reigns around Ireland. Though the Irish Rebellion was led by some of Ireland’s greatest political figures of the 18th century, the rebels were unable to make any gains outside of County Wexford. The aftermath of the Rebellion, as well as the Union Act of 1800, eventually caused an influx of emigration to the United States, Canada, and Australia.

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The Society of United Irishmen, an Irish political organization formed by Theobald Wolfe Tone, a leading Irish revolutionary figure and nicknamed the father of Irish republicanism, joined forces with James Napper Tandy of the Whig Party, and Thomas Russell. On the 11th of February, 1791, a resolution was passed to apply to Parliament to seek national sovereignty and form a society for the united Irish. Wolfe Tone proposed several resolutions for the new society over the course of six months: denounce the continuing interference of the British establishment in Irish affairs; full reform of the Irish parliament; a union of all religious faiths in Ireland and give Catholics political rights. The society was founded in October 1791 – the movement spread rapidly across the country.
 “The
weight of English influence in the government of this country is so great, as
to require a cordial union among all the people of Ireland, to maintain that
balance which is essential to the preservation of our liberties and the
extension of our commerce; The sole constitutional mode by which this influence
can be opposed, is by a complete and radical reform of the representation of
the people in Parliament; No reform is just which does not include every
Irishman of every religious persuasion.” [1]
The United States witnessed an
increase of Irish immigration in the 18th century as the British
Government continued to oppress Catholics in Ireland. These laws also
prohibited Irish Catholics from emigrating, meaning that most emigrants were of
Scots-Irish heritage, or identifying as Protestant. However, some Irish Catholics
could make the journey if they agreed to work as indentured servants without
pay for up to five to seven years for free passage. Statistics relating to
Irish immigration to America estimate that approximately half a million people
had originated in Ireland. Of these, over two-thirds are said to have been
Scots-Irish from the province of Ulster. [2]
            However,
many of the Penal Laws, first introduced in the late 17th century,
were later redacted in the 1790’s, making Irish emigration a possibility for
thousands of Catholics. Seeking Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness,
the Irish sought a new life in America to escape the harsh reality of British
political oppression.
The
Hardships
            During
the late 18th century, Ireland was ruled by the Church of Ireland,
or Anglican landowners and aristocrats. Most of the population was not
Anglican, and even if they could accumulate wealth and land, they were excluded
from political power. Ulster was dominated by Presbyterians who had displaced
earlier Catholic settlers of that region. Outside of Ulster and Dublin, the
population was overwhelmingly Catholic. However, the complex religious division
between class and geographic lines created by the British Government lead to
the idea of dividing and ruling. This system of religious discrimination
contained Penal Laws – a series of laws forcing Irish Roman Catholics and
Protestant dissenters to accept the denomination defined by the British. [3]
            The
Irish witnessed severe disciplinary action if they participated in Catholic
worship, including imprisonment, fines, and sometimes death. These laws barred
Catholics from owning land, voting, holding public office, practicing religion,
and education and were sporadically enforced throughout the 17th and
18th centuries. However, by 1832, the laws were completely nullified
through the 1926 Roman Catholic Relief Act, the Relief Act of 1791, Catholic
Emancipation Act of 1829, and the Roman Catholic Charities Act of 1832. [4]
            Between
the 17th and 18th centuries, Ireland had been part of
wars and battles heightened by religious division and discrimination. Both the
Catholics and Protestants, on opposing sides, claimed religious motives which
led to many sectarian massacres, causing the creation of sectarian politics
which has dominated parts of Ireland ever since. The history of religious wars
and inequalities led to sectarianism in the general population, though Armagh
was an exception as the population was evenly divided between the Catholics,
Anglicans, and Presbyterians. The Penal Laws continued to cause tension
throughout Ireland, leading to volunteer companies recruiting and arming Irish
Catholics to help with the cause. In the mid-to-late 1780’s, Protestant and
Loyalist forces began raiding Catholic homes – unarming, stealing, and on many
occasions, killing them. Dunmurry, Co. Antrim witnessed a bloody raid which
took place at “The Diamond.” Soon thereafter, the principal Unionist
organization of Northern Ireland, the Orange Order, was formed. [5]
            The
Irish upper class, including landlords and aristocrats, and the British
government collaborated in the promotion of sectarianism across Ireland. The
Irish Catholics had no rights and were alienated by the upper class – over
6,000 absentee landlords living outside of Ireland owned over seven million
acres of Irish land, making it increasingly difficult for Catholics to survive.
Since they were unable to own land, many experienced famines throughout the 18th
century, the first of which in 1740 killed 400,000 Irish Catholics. [6]
A landlord in
Ireland can scarcely invent an order which a servant, labourer, or cottier
dares to refuse to execute… Disrespect, or anything tending towards sauciness
he may punish with his cane or his horsewhip with the most perfect security. A
poor man would have his bones broken if he offered to lift a hand in his own
defence. Landlords of consequence have assured me that many of their cottiers
would think themselves honoured by having their wives and daughters sent to the
bed of their master – a mark of slavery which proves the oppression under which
such people must live.[7]
Thomas Paine’s The Rights of Man, released in May of
1791, saw over 20,000 copies printed and sold for digest in Ireland alone. The
enthusiasm for the French Revolution by the Irish people sparked interest in
the book, shedding light on British Parliament. A few months following the start
of the French Revolution, the Belfast Volunteer company celebrated the second
anniversary of the fall of the Bastille. At this celebration, a new society was
announced. Theobald Wolfe Tone, an Irish-Protestant revolutionary figure had
been asked to remark on the resolutions for the society – The Society of United
Irishmen. [8]
            The
foundation of the societies in both Belfast and Dublin occurred in October and
November of 1791. The organization initially demanded democratic reforms,
including Catholic emancipation, and continued to fight for the rights of all
Irish men and women. In response to pressure placed on the British government,
some reforms were granted. However, this period of reform ceased in 1793 once
war with France broke out in the French Revolution. The Society of United
Irishmen’s path to revolutionary separatism was completed when Wolfe Tone and
Henry Joy McCracken, a founding member of the society, met at Cave Hill in
1795, taking an oath and ultimately launching the Rebellion of 1798. The two
revolutionists hoped that with the French supporting their movement, they would
be able to dismantle the connection with Britain so that Ireland could witness
democratic reform. [9]
In the present
era of reform, when unjust governments are falling in every quarter of Europe,
when religious persecution is compelled to abjure her tyranny over conscience,
when the rights of men are ascertained in theory, and theory substantiated by
practice, when antiquity can no longer defend absurd and oppressive forms,
against the common sense and common interests of mankind, when all governments
are acknowledged to originate from the people, and to be so far only
obligatory, as they protect their rights and promote their welfare, we think it
our duty, as Irishmen, to come forward… We have no national government, we are
ruled by Englishmen, and the servants of Englishmen, whose object is the
interest of another country, whose instrument is corruption, and whose strength
is the weakness of Ireland; and these men have the whole of the power and
patronage of the country, as means to seduce and subdue the honesty of her
representatives in the legislature. – The Constitution of United Irishmen, 1797
[10]
The
Start of a Rebellion
            While
most of the United Irishmen began as reformists searching for equal rights,
this society was particularly different from earlier movements. Rather than
lobbying for reform, they aimed for the mobilization of the Irish. These men
did not focus just on Catholic emancipation alone – they also hoped to see a
future where all Irish people, both Protestant and Catholic, would be equal.  
In December
1796, 15,000 French troops arrived off the Bantry Bay coast in County Cork
making it the closest the United Irishmen would come to victory. However, the
poor weather ultimately saved Great Britain from defeat. Because of this failed
skirmish attempt, loyalists flocked to join the British Army. The rebellion
initially began in Kildare, Carlow, Wicklow, and Meath, which had been
primarily suppressed by government forces. 
The leaders of the United Irishmen Society felt forced to call on an
uprising and set the date for the 23 of May, 1798. This sparked major risings
in County Wexford, as well as counties Antrim and Down. These counties saw
battles with tens of thousands of soldiers and freedom fighters, while some
areas, such as Dublin, only experienced small skirmishes. [11]
During this
time, a statement was released by Dublin Castle, confirming that there was a
major rebel success in Wexford. Over 100 men from the North Cork Militia took
place in the engagement at Oulart, making it the most significant battle of the
rebellion. Wexford became a centralized point of the rebellion, pushing the
county over the edge. Rumors were spreading of floggings, pitch-cappings, and
house burnings conducted by the North Cork Militia just north of the county.
There were reports of United Irishmen executions, particularly in Carnew, where
35 prisoners had lost their lives. By Spring 1798, the British began attacking
and attempting to destroy the United Irishmen Society, leading to many of the
leaders’ arrests. On the 26 of May, approximately 34 United Irishmen were
executed at Dunlavin, south Wicklow. [12]
            In
April 1797, another four Irishmen from Monaghan were executed in front of
thousands of soldiers. The United Irishmen, seemingly abandoned by the French,
lacked strong leadership and were practically unarmed, despite having over
300,000 members of the society. The executions were effective at undermining
the society, though also created martyrs such as William Orr, a United Irishmen
who was later executed in October of that same year, charged with administering
the United Irish Oath to a soldier – deemed an executable crime by the British
Parliament.
            In
a letter from Lord Visount Gosford, Colonel of the Armagh Militia and Major
Wardle of the Ancient British Light Dragoons addressed to Lieutenant General
Lake dated 24 of May, 1798, the men discussed the failed rebel attempt to gain
control of “the Town,” presumably located in County Kildare.
This morning,
about half past 2 o’clock, a Dragoon from an outpost came in and informed Major
Wardle of the Ancient British that a very considerable armed body were approaching
rapidly upon the Town. The whole garrison were instantly under arms and took up
their position according to a plan previously formed in case of such an event
happening. The made the attack upon our Troops, posted near the Gaol, with
great violence, but were repulsed: They then made a general attack in almost
every direction, as they got possession of almost ever avenue into the Town.
They continued to engage the troops for near three quarters of an hour, when
they gave way, and fled on all sides. The Calvary immediately took advantage of
their confusion, charged in almost every direction, and killed a great number
of them (rebels)… We took another prisoner whom we have spared in consequence
of his having given us information that will enable us to pursue these rebels;
and from this man we learn that they were above a Thousand strong. [13]
The rebellion ended in October 1798
when government forces overran the United Irishmen just five months following
the start of the violent bloodshed. The conclusion of the rebellion saw 34
members of the United Irishmen executed, all of which were leaders of the
society – Theobald Wolfe Tone being one of the executed.  Out of fear of further rebellions or
skirmishes, the British Parliament quickly enacted the Act of Union of 1800 in
order to bring Ireland under Britain’s control. Wealthy landowners supported
the Act of Union which unified Ireland and England as the United Kingdom in
1801. [14]This
unification between two separate kingdoms caused much disdain and heightened
oppression against the Irish Catholics throughout Ireland, despite the British
redacting many of the anti-Catholic laws.
First Article of
the 1800 Act of Union: That Great Britain and Ireland shall upon Jan. 1, 1801,
be united into one kingdom, and that the titles appertaining to the crown shall
be such as his Majesty shall be pleased to appoint. [15]
Emigration
            In the 1790’s, many of the Anti-Catholic Penal Laws were repealed making emigration more obtainable for the Irish. However, despite the repeals, the effects of years of hatred and oppression carried on for centuries later, leaving some to sacrifice their identity to create a better life for themselves and their families. Other Irish Catholics, however, took this moment to gather as one to rebel against Great Britain, igniting a new wave Irish Nationalism – a wave that carried on for centuries later. Through this new form of nationalism, the Irish continued to rebel against the British in various uprisings throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. [16]
In the early
1800’s, Irish immigration to America increased significantly, partly due to
promotional advertisements placed in Irish newspapers and journals, posters
displayed in Irish towns, as well as the continued oppression the Irish
Catholics experienced daily. Many immigrants underwent the three-month long
journey departing from ports all over Ireland, including Derry, Cork, Limerick,
and Galway.[17]
Hundreds of emigrants were crammed into steerage of ships, also called “Coffin
Ships.” The dismal conditions on board these vessels often caused disease and
illness, such as typhoid, to spread like wildfire. Steerage was the most common
class for the Irish to travel as it was the least expensive and sometimes free
option for the immigrants, especially for those who agreed to become indentured
servants upon arrival. By 1840, almost half of America’s immigrant population
came from Ireland, settling in cities, such as Philadelphia and New York, along
the east coast.
            Irish
settlement into Canada and the United States ignited following the 1798
Rebellion, many arriving as political refugees from Northern Ireland. Of these
immigrants, approximately 5,000 emigrated per year from Ulster alone arriving
in Philadelphia, Newcastle, Wilmington, and New York. Many of the Irish had
experience in construction, road working, tilling, and clearing land and would
prove to be beneficial to the Americans during the Industrial Revolution. Since
the Irish were experiencing better living conditions in both Canada and the
United States after escaping oppression in Ireland, the immigration flow
increased, and by the mid-1800’s, there were more Irish in Canada than British
or Scots. [18]
As yet it’s only
natural I should feel lonesome in this country, ninety-nine out of every
hundred who come to it are at first disappointed. Still, it’s a fine country
and a much better place for a poor man tan Ireland. – John Doyle, a letter to
his wife. [19]
Irish
immigration gained momentum during the mid-19th century in the
United States and Canada. Thousands of Irish immigrants landed in these
countries hoping for a better life for religious freedoms, opportunities both
in the workplace and with their land, allowing them to raise their families
free of oppression and harsh realities. However, in many instances, the
protestants of the United States still frowned in disgust upon the Irish
Catholics, portraying them as poor, drunk, and belligerent. Life in America was
not always easy for the Irish settlers, though it did open new doors for the
emigrants, allowing them to make significant impacts the world would see a half
a century later: the color photograph, invented by John Joly of County Down;
the monorail, invented by Louis Brennan of County Mayo; the submarine, invented
by John Philip Holland of County Clare, who later commissioned the invention to
the United States Navy in 1900. [20]
Between 1820 and 1930, approximately 4.5 million Irish immigrants migrated to
the United States. [21]
The Irish continued to influence the world in many ways, all of which
positively affected the lives of millions around the world.
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[1] An Illustrated History of Ireland, Margaret Anne Cusack, Sister
Mary Frances Clare. Library Ireland.
[2] International Migrations, National Bureau of Economic Research,
Walter F. Willcox
[3] Ireland and Irish America: Culture, Class, and Transatlantic
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[4] Penal Laws, British and Irish History. Encyclopedia Britannica.
[5] The 1798 Irish Rebellion, Professor Thomas Bartlett. BBC.
[6] The Famine of 1740-41, Cormac O Grada, Diarmaid O Muirithe
[7] Arthur Young’s Tour of Ireland, Arthur Young
[8] Ireland and Opposition to British Rule, The University of Kansas
Libraries
[9] The Autobiography of Theobald Wolfe Tone, pgs. 10-44
[10] The Declaration, Resolutions, and Constitution of the Societies of
the United Irishmen, Villanova University
[11] The 1798 Irish Rebellion, Professor Thomas Bartlett. BBC.
[12] The Year of Liberty, The Great Irish Rebellion of 1798, Thomas
Pakenham
[13] An Impartial Narrative of the Most Important Engagements Which Took
Place Between His Majesty’s Forces and the Rebels During the Irish Rebellion of
1798, John Jones
[14] The Year of Liberty, The Great Irish Rebellion of 1798, Thomas
Pakenham
[15]
[16] From Oppression to Nationalism: The Irish Penal Laws of 1695,
Samantha Howell, University of Hawaii
[17] Ireland, The Maritime Heritage Project
[18] The Year of Liberty, The Great Irish Rebellion of 1798, Thomas
Pakenham
[19] Letter, John Doyle to Wife, Historical Society of Pennsylvania
[20] iWonder, Made in Northern Ireland, BBC.
[21] U.S. Immigration Before 1965, History.com